Ned Latham
2015-12-16 17:21:37 UTC
Copyright © 2001, 2014 Ned Latham
See the original at
http://www.users.on.net/~nedlatham/Science/ModellingLight/model.html
Light is here modelled as a stream of particles called photons,
which have constant mass and variable spin. Having mass, they
are subject to gravitational attraction. Having spin, they can
exhibit wave-like behaviours and attributes; in particular:
¤ A particle's frequency is defined as its spin rate;
ie, the number of revolutions it makes per unit time.
¤ A particle's wavelength is defined as the distance
it travels linearly while revolving once about its axis.
The model works as follows:
Constancy
As with any other massive object, a photon travels with
unvarying speed, spin and direction until and unless some
force acts upon it.
Sources emit light in all directions. Photons equidistant
from their sources are equidistant from their neighbours and thus
do not interact; ie, the algebraic sum of their gravitational
effects on each other is zero.
Mass
Taking Planck's Law and the second postulate of the Particle
Theory together yields nhf = ½(mv^2 + Iw^2), from which the
photon's mass will be calculable if:
1 The energy, speed and either frequency or wavelength
of photons from a source are measured, allowing
numerical substituion of n, f, v, and w;
2 If need be, a constant k = E / nf replaces Planck's
constant to adjust for the difference in speed from
the value assumed in Planck's Law;
3 The correct assumptions are made about the shape
and density of the photon, allowing the correct
formula to be substituted for I and the equation
rearranged to solve for m.
Speed
The energy of photons ejected from other particles depends
on the energy of the source particles at the moment of
ejection. It follows from that and the principle of
determinism that the set of energies of photons emitted
in any particular fusion reaction, such as hydrogen to
helium, is always the same, and that the set of energies
of photons emitted in any particular fission reaction,
such as radon to lead, is always the same. Similarly
with other types of light emission;
eg, electroluminescence, fluorescence and incandescnece:
the same cause in the same circumstances[1] always produces
the same set of energy levels[2].
The energy of emission is carried in the photon's speed
and spin and is apparent to human observers as colour.
¤ Again from the principle of determinism, it follows
that because the set of energies of any particular
type of emission is always the same, so too are its
sets of speed and spin.
¤ The speed of emission, and thus the speed of the
light, is relative to the source.
Colour Shift
Since the speed of light is relative to the source, its
speed as apparent to an observer will depend on any
relative motion between them. And since such motion can
have no effect on the photons' angular velocity, so too
will its energy, or colour.
If source and observer are approaching each other, the
speed as apparent to the observer is increased by delta v,
the energy transmitted to the observer by an impacting
photon is increased in proportion to (delta v)^2, and
the wavelength as apparent to the observer is decreased
in proportion to delta v. The light undergoes a blue shift.
Similarly, if source and observer are receding from each
other, the speed as apparent to the observer is decreased
by delta v, the energy transmitted to the observer by an
impacting photon is decreased in proportion to (delta v)2,
and the wavelength as apparent to the observer is
increased in proportion to delta v. The light undergoes
a red shift.
Gravitational Effects
Light is accelerated towards every massive body in the
universe, including the body that emits it. If that body's
gravity is so strong that its escape velocuty is higher
than its emission speed, an observer sees a "black hole".
If not, its acceleration slows the light, producing a red
shift.
Light falling on a massive body is sped up by the
acceleration: an observer in such a location sees a blue
shift in the light.
Light passing by a massive body is centripetally
accelerated, changing its direction to produce the
"gravitational lense" effect.
Absorption, reflection, refraction
When light encounters a material substance, the photons
are affected individually. Each is subject to gravitational
attraction to particles making up the substance; some or
all of them collide with particles making up the substance.
Collision sometimes results in capture; the photon is
absorbed and the substance gains its energy. Collision
sometimes results in reflection; it depends on the nature
of the substance, the arrangement of its particles and
any resonance between the movement of its particles and
the movement of the incoming photons whether the
reflection is differential or undistinguished and
orderly or scattered. Differential reflection colours
visible objects; orderly reflection produces a mirror
effect.
Those photons that do not collide with particles making
up the substance are accelerated into it by gravitational
attraction on both entry and exit, producing greater
speed within the substance, and changes of direction
at the interfaces: toward the normal on entry and away
from it on exit.
Dispersion
Dispersion is a special case of refraction. When the
entry and exit interfaces are parallel the change in
direction on exit is opposite in direction to that on
entry, and the beam appears to be the same thickness
in pre-entry and post-exit. When the substance is
prismatic, however, both changes are in the same
direction, and if the light is a mixture of colours
the beam is seen to be wider on exit than it was on
entry. It has undergone a differential dispersion,
with the amount of change in its direction being
proportional to the energy of its individual photons;
ie, the direction of the least energetic photons (red)
changes least and the direction of the most energetic
photons (violet) changes most.
The proportionality of the photon's change of direction
to its energy is also apparent in the gravitational
lense effect and in refractive lenses, where the spread
is called chromatic aberration. A mapping of change of
direction versus wavelength in the chromatic abberration
of refractive lenses shows a regular but non-linear
relationship.
The Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is a special case of absorption.
With some metals, when an incoming photon's energy level
is high enough, the electron it strikes is dislodged,
producing a usable electric charge in the metal.
Polarization
Polarization is a special case of mixed absorption,
reflection and refraction. Some substances absorb or
re-orient some photons whose spin axes lie outside
a particular orientation. Those photons not absorbed
either reflect from the material or pass through it
refractively, and the emergent light, having
uniformly-oriented spin axes, is aptly described as
polarized.
Diffraction and "Interference"
Photons passing close to a barrier onto a screen placed
beyond it are gravitationally attracted to it and their
courses bend towards it, with those courses passing
closest to it being bent the most. As a result of that,
the affected photons are no longer equidistant from all
their neighbours, and the algebraic sum of their
gravitational effects on each other is no longer zero.
They interact, drawing closer together, forming "lanes"
in the affected region[3], and appearing on the screen
in the familiar bands of light and dark which have been
interpreted as evidence of wave interference for the
last two hundred and some years.
With a single barrier, the bands are indistinct. With
two barriers placed end-to-end, however (the single slit
experiment), they become somewhat clearer. As the
single-barrier result predicts, there is now a central
band of light with bands of diminishing brightness
appearing on each side.
With two closely-placed parallel slits, the pattern and
its resemblance to the type of pattern produced by wave
interference become clear enough to be seen without
difficulty. That resemblance should be recognised for
the illusion that it is; the rings of Saturn and the
low-emission-rate and buckyball versions of the
double-slit experiment demonstratre that quite clearly.
--------
[1] In the case of incandescence, for example, one of the
circumstances is temperature.
[2] Specifically, one emission energy level for each
electron energy level.
[3] For a macroscopic example of gravity forming "lanes"
in streams of material objects, see the rings of Saturn.
--------
Bed
See the original at
http://www.users.on.net/~nedlatham/Science/ModellingLight/model.html
Light is here modelled as a stream of particles called photons,
which have constant mass and variable spin. Having mass, they
are subject to gravitational attraction. Having spin, they can
exhibit wave-like behaviours and attributes; in particular:
¤ A particle's frequency is defined as its spin rate;
ie, the number of revolutions it makes per unit time.
¤ A particle's wavelength is defined as the distance
it travels linearly while revolving once about its axis.
The model works as follows:
Constancy
As with any other massive object, a photon travels with
unvarying speed, spin and direction until and unless some
force acts upon it.
Sources emit light in all directions. Photons equidistant
from their sources are equidistant from their neighbours and thus
do not interact; ie, the algebraic sum of their gravitational
effects on each other is zero.
Mass
Taking Planck's Law and the second postulate of the Particle
Theory together yields nhf = ½(mv^2 + Iw^2), from which the
photon's mass will be calculable if:
1 The energy, speed and either frequency or wavelength
of photons from a source are measured, allowing
numerical substituion of n, f, v, and w;
2 If need be, a constant k = E / nf replaces Planck's
constant to adjust for the difference in speed from
the value assumed in Planck's Law;
3 The correct assumptions are made about the shape
and density of the photon, allowing the correct
formula to be substituted for I and the equation
rearranged to solve for m.
Speed
The energy of photons ejected from other particles depends
on the energy of the source particles at the moment of
ejection. It follows from that and the principle of
determinism that the set of energies of photons emitted
in any particular fusion reaction, such as hydrogen to
helium, is always the same, and that the set of energies
of photons emitted in any particular fission reaction,
such as radon to lead, is always the same. Similarly
with other types of light emission;
eg, electroluminescence, fluorescence and incandescnece:
the same cause in the same circumstances[1] always produces
the same set of energy levels[2].
The energy of emission is carried in the photon's speed
and spin and is apparent to human observers as colour.
¤ Again from the principle of determinism, it follows
that because the set of energies of any particular
type of emission is always the same, so too are its
sets of speed and spin.
¤ The speed of emission, and thus the speed of the
light, is relative to the source.
Colour Shift
Since the speed of light is relative to the source, its
speed as apparent to an observer will depend on any
relative motion between them. And since such motion can
have no effect on the photons' angular velocity, so too
will its energy, or colour.
If source and observer are approaching each other, the
speed as apparent to the observer is increased by delta v,
the energy transmitted to the observer by an impacting
photon is increased in proportion to (delta v)^2, and
the wavelength as apparent to the observer is decreased
in proportion to delta v. The light undergoes a blue shift.
Similarly, if source and observer are receding from each
other, the speed as apparent to the observer is decreased
by delta v, the energy transmitted to the observer by an
impacting photon is decreased in proportion to (delta v)2,
and the wavelength as apparent to the observer is
increased in proportion to delta v. The light undergoes
a red shift.
Gravitational Effects
Light is accelerated towards every massive body in the
universe, including the body that emits it. If that body's
gravity is so strong that its escape velocuty is higher
than its emission speed, an observer sees a "black hole".
If not, its acceleration slows the light, producing a red
shift.
Light falling on a massive body is sped up by the
acceleration: an observer in such a location sees a blue
shift in the light.
Light passing by a massive body is centripetally
accelerated, changing its direction to produce the
"gravitational lense" effect.
Absorption, reflection, refraction
When light encounters a material substance, the photons
are affected individually. Each is subject to gravitational
attraction to particles making up the substance; some or
all of them collide with particles making up the substance.
Collision sometimes results in capture; the photon is
absorbed and the substance gains its energy. Collision
sometimes results in reflection; it depends on the nature
of the substance, the arrangement of its particles and
any resonance between the movement of its particles and
the movement of the incoming photons whether the
reflection is differential or undistinguished and
orderly or scattered. Differential reflection colours
visible objects; orderly reflection produces a mirror
effect.
Those photons that do not collide with particles making
up the substance are accelerated into it by gravitational
attraction on both entry and exit, producing greater
speed within the substance, and changes of direction
at the interfaces: toward the normal on entry and away
from it on exit.
Dispersion
Dispersion is a special case of refraction. When the
entry and exit interfaces are parallel the change in
direction on exit is opposite in direction to that on
entry, and the beam appears to be the same thickness
in pre-entry and post-exit. When the substance is
prismatic, however, both changes are in the same
direction, and if the light is a mixture of colours
the beam is seen to be wider on exit than it was on
entry. It has undergone a differential dispersion,
with the amount of change in its direction being
proportional to the energy of its individual photons;
ie, the direction of the least energetic photons (red)
changes least and the direction of the most energetic
photons (violet) changes most.
The proportionality of the photon's change of direction
to its energy is also apparent in the gravitational
lense effect and in refractive lenses, where the spread
is called chromatic aberration. A mapping of change of
direction versus wavelength in the chromatic abberration
of refractive lenses shows a regular but non-linear
relationship.
The Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is a special case of absorption.
With some metals, when an incoming photon's energy level
is high enough, the electron it strikes is dislodged,
producing a usable electric charge in the metal.
Polarization
Polarization is a special case of mixed absorption,
reflection and refraction. Some substances absorb or
re-orient some photons whose spin axes lie outside
a particular orientation. Those photons not absorbed
either reflect from the material or pass through it
refractively, and the emergent light, having
uniformly-oriented spin axes, is aptly described as
polarized.
Diffraction and "Interference"
Photons passing close to a barrier onto a screen placed
beyond it are gravitationally attracted to it and their
courses bend towards it, with those courses passing
closest to it being bent the most. As a result of that,
the affected photons are no longer equidistant from all
their neighbours, and the algebraic sum of their
gravitational effects on each other is no longer zero.
They interact, drawing closer together, forming "lanes"
in the affected region[3], and appearing on the screen
in the familiar bands of light and dark which have been
interpreted as evidence of wave interference for the
last two hundred and some years.
With a single barrier, the bands are indistinct. With
two barriers placed end-to-end, however (the single slit
experiment), they become somewhat clearer. As the
single-barrier result predicts, there is now a central
band of light with bands of diminishing brightness
appearing on each side.
With two closely-placed parallel slits, the pattern and
its resemblance to the type of pattern produced by wave
interference become clear enough to be seen without
difficulty. That resemblance should be recognised for
the illusion that it is; the rings of Saturn and the
low-emission-rate and buckyball versions of the
double-slit experiment demonstratre that quite clearly.
--------
[1] In the case of incandescence, for example, one of the
circumstances is temperature.
[2] Specifically, one emission energy level for each
electron energy level.
[3] For a macroscopic example of gravity forming "lanes"
in streams of material objects, see the rings of Saturn.
--------
Bed